Nikolai Gogol was born in the Ukraine in 1809, and died in 1852. His most famous novel, Dead Souls, was written in Russian and is considered to be a unique example of 19th century Russian literature. In fact, it is often termed the first Russian novel. However, Gogol referred to it as a poem, and indicated in a letter to his friend, Tolstoy, that the first part was to be a parallel of the “Inferno” section in Dante’s Divine Comedy. After the first part was completed, many years passed before Gogol began work on the second part. In a sense, the second part is unfinished because the last sentence is not complete. The work was meant to be a trilogy, but it is unknown whether he ever began work on the third part. He had burnt all his manuscripts near the end of his life, due to religious fervor that had overtaken him, under the guidance of a priest, Father Matthew. According to Father Matthew, the book Gogol had written was eminently sinful and must be destroyed. In the end, Gogol’s fervor became so intense that he stopped eating and died nine days later. The manuscript we have now was translated from bits and pieces that were still extant after Gogol died. (Dead Souls Summary)
The setting for Dead Souls is early 19th century Czarist Russia. The social system primarily consisted of landowners, who possessed large tracts of land, and serfs, who were bound to the land and farmed it on behalf of the landlord. Landowners were taxed based on the number of serfs, just like they would be for any other type of property. On the tax rolls, serfs were numbered as “souls”; for example “5 souls of serfs.” Even if a serf had died, he remained on the tax rolls, and was part of the landowner’s taxable property, until the next census, which was conducted every ten years. (DeLaine) Dead souls in the tax sense play a major role in the plot of Dead Souls, and therein lies one perspective on the title of the novel.
Another perspective refers to the characters in the novel. According to many literary critics, Gogol’s characters are archetypes that represent various moral traits found in the Russian society: foolishness, reticence, emotionality, harshness, neuroticism, miserliness, and complacency. They are dead souls, too, because they are not full individuals. They have carried their character traits to extremes and are no longer able to change based on anything that happens around them.(Dead Souls Summary)
Dead Souls contains many narrative incongruities and oddities that make it different from other Russian novels such as Crime and Punishment by Dostoyevsky and War and Peace by Tolstoy. The very concept of someone purchasing dead serfs is both clever and ridiculous. The cleverness stems from the fact that Russian landowners of this period were able to get low-cost loans based on the number of souls they owned. This is Chichikov’s plan – to obtain a large number of “souls” and then use those souls, though they are already dead, to get loans and buy the land so that he officially will be a landowner, which is his long-term goal. (Yau) The ridiculousness comes into play when one thinks of paying money for the name of a dead person. It is no wonder that Madame Korobotchka thinks he is trying to cheat her! For example, Chichikov ends an attempt to explain his plan with the words, “‘Do you understand at last?’ However, the old lady still communed with herself. She could see that the transaction would be to her advantage, yet it was one of such a novel and unprecedented nature that she was beginning to fear lest this purchaser of souls intended to cheat her. Certainly he had come from God only knew where, and at the dead of night, too!”(Gogol 49)
Early in the book, Gogol speaks as the author: “… a purpose which stood nearer to his [Chichikov’s] heart, than the motive which I have just given; and of that purpose the reader will learn if only he will have the patience to read this prefatory narrative…” Throughout the book he continues to use this device, which allows him to step outside the narrative and provide extraneous information that otherwise might not fit into the story. (Tikos)
Other narrative incongruities and oddities in the book serve a variety of purposes. These include a) presenting the entire story as a satire that ridicules Russian society, b) keeping the tone of the book light-hearted in contrast to its underlying issue which is death, and c) reinforcing the theme of the book, which is told in the title, Dead Souls. Gogol believed that it was his mission to save Russia from itself, and the book that he wrote appears to be his climactic work in this mission. (Yau) He satirizes Russian society in order to point out an important truth, namely the ridiculous falsity to which that society subscribes. However, in order to induce his fellow countrymen to read the book, he must make it funny and easy for them to understand – thus the light-hearted nature of the book. Finally, he titles his book Dead Souls and presents a parade of characters who are, in themselves, dead to all that is meaningful in life. They are too far gone to save, but Gogol hopes to save those readers who still have some life left in them. (Dead Souls Summary)
Chichikov, Gogol’s main character, enters the village of N. (according to Jones, an analog of St. Petersburg) and begins to set up his persona. After acquiring a room at the local inn, he inquires about local governmental officials: their names, what they are like, and where he can find them. The next day he makes calls upon some of those officials, letting them have small portions of information about himself (portions which may or may not be true), but primarily appealing to their vanities by listening to them and complimenting them. As a result, he quickly becomes a part of their society, attending dinner parties and teas, and everywhere preserving his amiable reputation.(Gogol 7-15) He does not make his goal evident to those he meets, but he is clearly pleased when he meets a few landowners. These are his true targets, and as soon as he can, he goes to visit them.
The first landowner whom Chichikov visits is Manilov, who presents himself as a very genial, good-natured host. However, Gogol points out (in another one of his author-to-reader utterances) that “only God can say what Manilov’s real character was.” (Gogol 19) He postulates that Manilov lacked a hobby, and that, in fact, nothing was ever completed in his home or in his life. His manner of life is a mask, and one questions whether there is anything underneath. An interesting passage appears during one of Manilov’s speeches: “… said Manilov, with a glance not merely sweet, but positively luscious – a glance akin to the mixture which even clever physicians have to render palatable before they can induce a hesitant patient to take it.” (Gogol 25) The juxtaposed concepts of a luscious glance that is nevertheless unpalatable tells the reader something important about Manilov’s mask; that is, it might as well be made of poison, in spite of the nauseating sweetness it is wrapped in. However, Manilov’s friendliness serves Chichikov well, since it is that which causes the former to offer his dead souls for free, even being ready to pay the costs of the transaction on behalf of his new friend. This, of course, is extremely agreeable to the hero of the book.
After leaving the estate of Manilov, Chichikov’s britchka becomes lost, due to the coachman, Selifan, becoming drunk before the trip. They finally arrive at the home of Madame Korobotchka, who turns out to be miserly as well as foolish. As indicated above, she has great difficulty understanding why Chichikov would want to spend money on slaves that do not exist any longer. She becomes suspicious, thinking he is trying to cheat her in some way, and there must be a value to those dead souls of which she is not aware. “Perhaps I had better wait a little longer, seeing that other buyers might come along, and I might be able to compare prices.” (Gogol 51). Chichikov finally loses his patience and tells her to go to the devil. Ironically, it is this imperative that does the trick, for the woman has been dreaming about the devil and she holds him in dread. She soon agrees to sell him the dead souls for fifteen rubles each. Madame Korobotchka exemplifies miserliness, foolishness, and paranoia.
An interesting turn of events occurs when Chichikov visits Nozdrev, who says he is willing to give the souls for free if Chichikov will purchase something else – a mare, a puppy, a barrel-organ or another item. (Gogol 78 et al.) The main character is not interested in Nozdrev’s material goods, and does not understand why he should have to buy something he doesn’t need, especially considering the fact that he is willing to pay for the souls and Nozdrev will get paid if he only will agree to sell the souls alone. Nozdrev then presses Chichikov to play a game of chess for the souls, but he cheats blatantly and Chichikov confronts him with that fact. “‘No, no!’ shouted Chichikov as he rose from the table. ‘It is impossible to play with a man like you. People don’t move three pieces at once.’” (Gogol 84). It seems as if there will be a physical fight, but the sudden appearance of the Rural Police, who have come to arrest Nozdrev for assault, allows Chichikov to leave quickly before the deranged landowner creates another reason for his arrest. “At this point Chichikov, without waiting for Nozdrev’s reply, seized his cap, slipped behind the Superintendent’s back, rushed out on to the verandah, sprang into his britchka, and ordered Selifan to drive like the wind.” (Gogol 87) Nozdrev’s character is a clear indictment of those portions of Russian society who were flighty, neurotic, and untrustworthy. (Jones)
When Chichikov and Sobakevitch are arguing over the price for the dead souls, it is humorously incongruous that Sobakevitch asks so much money — one hundred rubles! — for a person, or rather for the name of a person, since the serf is already dead. In fact, he begins to describe the excellent accomplishments of his many good, but now non-existent, souls. Chichikov cannot believe what his friend is saying. Sobakevitch behaves as if the dead souls are not dead at all. In contrast to Manilov’s nonchalant manner and willingness to give the souls without payment, Sobakevitch wants an extremely high payment. (Gogol 100) This is one of the many oddities found in Gogol’s novel.
After Chichikov has visited several of the nearby landowners and bought over 400 souls, he returns to the village of N. to settle the transactions. Before this occurs he looks over the lists and begins to imagine the individual serfs in his thoughts. In effect, he brings them to life in his mind. This is one section that typifies what Gogol hopes to do with the novel; he hopes that his description of Russian society will inspire members of that society to begin questioning their own habits and behaviors, wondering who they truly are and why they do the things they do.
In another author-to-reader descriptive passage, Gogol describes the ladies of the village – their interest in Chichikov, their use of language, and other characteristics. Their use of language is particularly interesting, since they choose to speak any critical thought in a manner that is the mildest possible statement. For example, “…to say, ‘This glass, or this plate, smells badly’ was forbidden. No, not even a hint to such an effect was to be dropped. Rather, the proper phrase, in such a case was ‘This glass, or this plate, is not behaving very well,’ – or some such formula.” (Gogol 143) He mentions that the Russian tongue was refined to the extent that half the words were not used, since they were unacceptable. When a blunt statement must be made, the ladies resorted to French: “…since the same words, if spoken in French, were another matter altogether, and one could use even blunter one that the ones originally objected to.” (Gogol 144) This curious state of affairs reveals the hypocrisy of the villagers from another perspective. The ladies never say what they mean and rarely mean what they say – unless it is in French, of course. This is yet another incongruity that Gogol points out. (Tikos)
The villagers welcome Chichikov back from his travels quite effusively; he is almost a hero in their eyes. They believe him to possess a great deal of money; additionally, Gogol relates Chichikov’s ability to take just the right tone with individual persons so as to meet them exactly where their personalities reside. However, not long after Chichikov’s return, events occur that, together, can spell doom for his scheme. First, several of the landowners from whom he purchased dead souls come in to town, most notably Madame Korobotchka, who is still concerned that she may be committing some grave sin by selling the dead souls. The story begins to spread about the town. At the same time, two missives arrived addressed to the Governor of the province. One warned of a forger of ruble-notes who was at large, while the other spoke of a malicious criminal whose crimes were so serious that any man who lacked references should be held to ensure he was not said criminal. The village became stirred up like a hornet’s nest. Gogol almost sounds gleeful as he writes about the various factions who were trying to determine Chichikov’s true identity – even though they had very little evidence to go on (Gogol 160-170). Gogol’s rationale for portraying the villagers in this way is to show their foolishness and readiness to believe anything that is told to them or that they themselves invent. It is necessary for them to understand that about themselves if Gogol is to save them. (Dead Souls Summary)
Near the end of chapter 10, Chichikov is confronted by Nozdrev concerning his supposed plot to abduct the Governor’s daughter. An earlier passage did describe Chichikov’s attraction to her at the ball, but he had no apparent intention of kidnapping her. He is naturally astonished at the suggestion, coming as it has with the suspicion that he is a forger. He decides he must leave the town at once. But Gogol points out that, although it may be easy to leave a physical location behind, it is not so easy to leave a state of mind. He shows the reader Chichikov’s life story by having the character himself reminiscing while riding away. (Gogol 186 et al.) This leads to the evolution of the original idea: that of creating a nonexistent town in another province, acquiring dead souls elsewhere, and using them to purchase actual land. Dead Souls ends with a commentary on the experience of riding in a fast troika, and likening that to Russia’s headlong move into the 19th century.
In conclusion, Dead Souls is Gogol’s satiric version of the Odyssey or Don Quixote, a tale in which the hero (or in this case, actually an anti-hero) travels and meets many unusual people. Dead Souls features people who are at once unusual and also archetypes. Gogol’s narrative style, full of incongruities, oddities, and extraneous thoughts from the author to the reader, accomplishes its goal of holding up a mirror to the Russian people, and in fact, to human beings in general.
References
——. Dead Souls Summary. Retrieved from http://www.bookrags.com/wiki/Dead_Souls.
DeLaine, L. (2007). Russian Life: Dead Souls. Retrieved from http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RUSserfs.htm.
Gogol N. (1842 original). Dead Souls.
Jones D. (1997). “Multi-faceted metaphor: Gogol’s portrayal of St. Petersburg in Dead Souls.” Rocky Mountain Modern Language Association. Retrieved from http://rmmla.wsu.edu/ ereview/56.2/articles/jones.asp.
Tikos, L. (1996) Gogol’s Art: A Search for identity. Retrieved from http://www.samizdat.com/ gogol9.html.
Yau M. (2004) “I don’t want real peasants; I want to have dead ones.” Retrieved from http://www.amazon.com/review/R2SV1CMNOFC8OY.